Playground Areas and Physical Activity Levels in Children
Playground Areas and Physical Activity Levels in Children
As a result of the increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity in children (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2014), along with the rise in inactivity in children (Kohl III & Cook, 2013), the promotion of PA is a public health concern (Ridgers, Saint-Maurice, Welk, Siahpush, & Huberty, 2011). PA has also been associated with improving attention skills during school (Bates, 2006, Evans and Pellegrini, 1997, Gapin et al., 2011, Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005) and obtaining higher grades (Coe et al., 2006, Zan, 2013). Moreover, PA gained from school outside of classroom time can also help socially (e.g., with sharing, cooperation, communication, and problem solving), emotionally (e.g., with stress relief, self-esteem, and character development), and cognitively (e.g., with creativity, problem-solving skills, and vocabulary development; Kahan, 2008, Ramstetter et al., 2010).
When specifically examining the literature regarding the playground environment, current literature indicates that boys spend more time in MVPA than do girls but that it is important to provide playground environments that are inviting for increased PA levels for both boys and girls (Dyment et al., 2009, Jones et al., 2010, Ridgers et al., 2011). The association among fixed equipment and playground markings and PA levels in children is unclear. Zask, Van Beurden, Barnett, Brooks, and Dietrich (2001)) found a nonsignificant association between fixed equipment and PA levels in children. Willenberg et al. (2010)) found that fixed equipment and asphalt with court/play-line markings were inviting to children for active play but had the greatest impact only on moderate activity. In contrast, Dyment and colleagues (2009)) found that the highest percent of children in their study (42%) participated in vigorous PA on manufactured fixed equipment.
Studies have found that playground paint markings increased the percent of recess time children spent in MVPA (Blaes et al., 2013, Stratton and Mullan, 2005). Ridgers, Fairclough, and Stratton (2010)) also examined the effect of playground markings and PA levels in children but over a period of 1 year. The playground markings also had a positive effect on MVPA during recess, but this effect was strongest at 6 months after the intervention and decreased between 6 months and 12 months. In contrast, Ridgers, Stratton, Fairclough, and Twisk (2007)) did not find a significant difference in MVPA in children after the playground environment was redesigned with multicolor playground markings. Additionally, Kelly et al. (2012)) found that playground markings did not increase PA levels in children.
A few studies have examined the effects of offering an organized PA program on the playground environment. Howe, Freedson, Alhassan, Feldman, and Osganian (2012)) examined the effect of a 30-minute structured recess using 22 games of known energy expenditure on MVPA when compared with free play. The study used a sample of third-grade students from two elementary schools over 9 weeks. Results from the study showed that MVPA increased significantly in the intervention school compared with the control school. In another study, body fat and fat mass were significantly reduced in elementary school children who participated in a brisk walking program over 15 weeks (Ford, Perkins, & Swaine, 2013). McKenzie et al. (2010)) separated playgrounds at 13 San Diego elementary schools into target areas. They observed the target areas during leisure times, including before school, at recess, and during active lunchtime and found that MVPA in children were higher during lunch and recess than before school. They also found that organized activities during recess are rarely offered.
In general, research on the playground physical environment and its association to PA levels in children is growing. Additional research is needed to examine which playground areas attract children and promote MVPA during leisure times at school. Also, further research is needed on the influence of an organized PA program on PA levels of children when offered in a playground target area.
Review of the Literature
As a result of the increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity in children (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2014), along with the rise in inactivity in children (Kohl III & Cook, 2013), the promotion of PA is a public health concern (Ridgers, Saint-Maurice, Welk, Siahpush, & Huberty, 2011). PA has also been associated with improving attention skills during school (Bates, 2006, Evans and Pellegrini, 1997, Gapin et al., 2011, Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005) and obtaining higher grades (Coe et al., 2006, Zan, 2013). Moreover, PA gained from school outside of classroom time can also help socially (e.g., with sharing, cooperation, communication, and problem solving), emotionally (e.g., with stress relief, self-esteem, and character development), and cognitively (e.g., with creativity, problem-solving skills, and vocabulary development; Kahan, 2008, Ramstetter et al., 2010).
When specifically examining the literature regarding the playground environment, current literature indicates that boys spend more time in MVPA than do girls but that it is important to provide playground environments that are inviting for increased PA levels for both boys and girls (Dyment et al., 2009, Jones et al., 2010, Ridgers et al., 2011). The association among fixed equipment and playground markings and PA levels in children is unclear. Zask, Van Beurden, Barnett, Brooks, and Dietrich (2001)) found a nonsignificant association between fixed equipment and PA levels in children. Willenberg et al. (2010)) found that fixed equipment and asphalt with court/play-line markings were inviting to children for active play but had the greatest impact only on moderate activity. In contrast, Dyment and colleagues (2009)) found that the highest percent of children in their study (42%) participated in vigorous PA on manufactured fixed equipment.
Studies have found that playground paint markings increased the percent of recess time children spent in MVPA (Blaes et al., 2013, Stratton and Mullan, 2005). Ridgers, Fairclough, and Stratton (2010)) also examined the effect of playground markings and PA levels in children but over a period of 1 year. The playground markings also had a positive effect on MVPA during recess, but this effect was strongest at 6 months after the intervention and decreased between 6 months and 12 months. In contrast, Ridgers, Stratton, Fairclough, and Twisk (2007)) did not find a significant difference in MVPA in children after the playground environment was redesigned with multicolor playground markings. Additionally, Kelly et al. (2012)) found that playground markings did not increase PA levels in children.
A few studies have examined the effects of offering an organized PA program on the playground environment. Howe, Freedson, Alhassan, Feldman, and Osganian (2012)) examined the effect of a 30-minute structured recess using 22 games of known energy expenditure on MVPA when compared with free play. The study used a sample of third-grade students from two elementary schools over 9 weeks. Results from the study showed that MVPA increased significantly in the intervention school compared with the control school. In another study, body fat and fat mass were significantly reduced in elementary school children who participated in a brisk walking program over 15 weeks (Ford, Perkins, & Swaine, 2013). McKenzie et al. (2010)) separated playgrounds at 13 San Diego elementary schools into target areas. They observed the target areas during leisure times, including before school, at recess, and during active lunchtime and found that MVPA in children were higher during lunch and recess than before school. They also found that organized activities during recess are rarely offered.
In general, research on the playground physical environment and its association to PA levels in children is growing. Additional research is needed to examine which playground areas attract children and promote MVPA during leisure times at school. Also, further research is needed on the influence of an organized PA program on PA levels of children when offered in a playground target area.
